Positive reinforcement: increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Negative reinforcement: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengths the response.
Primary reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
Conditioned reinforcer: a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.
Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
Fixed-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Variable-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Variable-interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Punishment: an event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
Cognitive Map: a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
Latent Learning: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Intrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
Extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.
Observational learning: learning by observing others.
Modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Mirror Neurons: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
Prosocial behavior: a positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
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